Correlation between white matter tract integrity and language impairment after traumatic brain injury
(2023)
Journal Article
Na, Y., Jung, J., Lee, H. I., Lee, J. I., & Pyun, S. (2023). Correlation between white matter tract integrity and language impairment after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 67, Article 101140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2023.101140
Dr JEYOUNG JUNG's Outputs (35)
Task-dependent plasticity in distributed neural circuits after transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex: A proof-of-concept study (2022)
Journal Article
Hodkinson, D. J., Jackson, S. R., & Jung, J. (2022). Task-dependent plasticity in distributed neural circuits after transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex: A proof-of-concept study. Frontiers in Pain Research, 3, Article 1005634. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpain.2022.1005634The ability of non-invasive brain stimulation to induce neuroplasticity and cause long-lasting functional changes is of considerable interest for the reversal of chronic pain and disability. Stimulation of the primary motor cortex (M1) has provided s... Read More about Task-dependent plasticity in distributed neural circuits after transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex: A proof-of-concept study.
Non-invasive brain stimulation modulates GABAergic activity in neurofibromatosis 1 (2022)
Journal Article
Garg, S., Williams, S., Jung, J., Pobric, G., Nandi, T., Lim, B., …Stivaros, S. (2022). Non-invasive brain stimulation modulates GABAergic activity in neurofibromatosis 1. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 18297. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21907-9Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a single-gene disorder associated with cognitive phenotypes common to neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism. GABAergic dysregulation underlies working memory impairments seen in NF1. This mechanistic experimental s... Read More about Non-invasive brain stimulation modulates GABAergic activity in neurofibromatosis 1.
Neurochemical profiles of the anterior temporal lobe predict response of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on semantic processing (2022)
Journal Article
Jung, J. Y., Williams, S. R., Nezhad, F. S., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2022). Neurochemical profiles of the anterior temporal lobe predict response of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on semantic processing. NeuroImage, 258, Article 119386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119386Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive technique used to modulate cortical excitability in the human brain. However, one major challenge with rTMS is that the responses to stimulation are highly variable across individu... Read More about Neurochemical profiles of the anterior temporal lobe predict response of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on semantic processing.
Distinct but cooperating brain networks supporting semantic cognition (2022)
Journal Article
Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. (2023). Distinct but cooperating brain networks supporting semantic cognition. Cerebral Cortex, 33(5), 2021-2036. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac190Semantic cognition is a complex multifaceted brain function involving multiple processes including sensory, semantic, and domain-general cognitive systems. However, it remains unclear how these systems cooperate with each other to achieve effective s... Read More about Distinct but cooperating brain networks supporting semantic cognition.
Language systems from lesion-symptom mapping in aphasia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based lesion mapping studies (2022)
Journal Article
Na, Y., Jung, J. Y., Tench, C. R., Auer, D. P., & Pyun, S. B. (2022). Language systems from lesion-symptom mapping in aphasia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based lesion mapping studies. NeuroImage: Clinical, 35, Article 103038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103038Background: Aphasia is one of the most common causes of post-stroke disabilities. As the symptoms and impact of post-stroke aphasia are heterogeneous, it is important to understand how topographical lesion heterogeneity in patients with aphasia is as... Read More about Language systems from lesion-symptom mapping in aphasia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based lesion mapping studies.
Neuroanatomical correlates of working memory performance in Neurofibromatosis 1 (2022)
Journal Article
Sawyer, C., Green, J., Lim, B., Pobric, G., Jung, J., Vassallo, G., Evans, D. G., Stagg, C. J., Parkes, L. M., Stivaros, S., Muhlert, N., & Garg, S. (2022). Neuroanatomical correlates of working memory performance in Neurofibromatosis 1. Cerebral Cortex Communications, 3(2), Article tgac021. https://doi.org/10.1093/texcom/tgac021Introduction: Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a single-gene disorder associated with cognitive impairments, particularly with deficits in
working memory. Prior research indicates that brain structure is affected in NF1, but it is unclear how these chan... Read More about Neuroanatomical correlates of working memory performance in Neurofibromatosis 1.
Subregions of DLPFC Display Graded yet Distinct Structural and Functional Connectivity (2022)
Journal Article
Jung, J. Y., Lambon Ralph, M. A., & Jackson, R. L. (2022). Subregions of DLPFC Display Graded yet Distinct Structural and Functional Connectivity. Journal of Neuroscience, 42(15), 3241-3252. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1216-21.2022The human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; approximately corresponding to Brodmann areas 9 and 46) has demonstrable roles in diverse executive functions such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, inhibition, and abstract reasoning... Read More about Subregions of DLPFC Display Graded yet Distinct Structural and Functional Connectivity.
The convergence and divergence of episodic and semantic functions across lateral parietal cortex (2022)
Journal Article
Humphreys, G. F., Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2022). The convergence and divergence of episodic and semantic functions across lateral parietal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 32(24), 5664-5681. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac044Decades of research have highlighted the importance of lateral parietal cortex (LPC) across a myriad of cognitive domains. Yet, the underlying function of LPC remains unclear. Two domains that have emphasized LPC involvement are semantic memory and e... Read More about The convergence and divergence of episodic and semantic functions across lateral parietal cortex.
The immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: Short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS (2021)
Journal Article
Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2021). The immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: Short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS. NeuroImage, 240, Article 118375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118375Recent evidence demonstrates that activation-dependent neuroplasticity on a structural level can occur in a short time (2 hour or less) in the human brain. However, the exact time scale of structural plasticity in the human brain remains unclear. Usi... Read More about The immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: Short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS.
Cognitive and Electrophysiological Correlates of Working Memory Impairments in Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (2021)
Journal Article
Pobric, G., Taylor, J. R., Ramalingam, H. M., Pye, E., Robinson, L., Vassallo, G., …Garg, S. (2022). Cognitive and Electrophysiological Correlates of Working Memory Impairments in Neurofibromatosis Type 1. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(4), 1478-1494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05043-3Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a single gene disorder associated with working Memory (WM) impairments. The aim of this study was to investigate P300 event-related potential (ERP) associated with WM in NF1. Sixteen adolescents with NF1 were compared wit... Read More about Cognitive and Electrophysiological Correlates of Working Memory Impairments in Neurofibromatosis Type 1.
The neural bases of resilient semantic system: evidence of variable neuro-displacement in cognitive systems (2021)
Journal Article
Jung, J. Y., Rice, G. E., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2021). The neural bases of resilient semantic system: evidence of variable neuro-displacement in cognitive systems. Brain Structure and Function, 226(5), 1585-1599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-021-02272-1The purpose of this study was to explore an important research goal in cognitive and clinical neuroscience: What are the neurocomputational mechanisms that make cognitive systems “well engineered” and thus resilient across a range of performance dema... Read More about The neural bases of resilient semantic system: evidence of variable neuro-displacement in cognitive systems.
Neural correlates of confusability in recognition of morphologically complex Korean words (2021)
Journal Article
Kim, J., Jung, J., & Nam, K. (2021). Neural correlates of confusability in recognition of morphologically complex Korean words. PLoS ONE, 16(4), Article e0249111. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249111When people confuse and reject a non-word that is created by switching two adjacent letters from an actual word, is called the transposition confusability effect (TCE). The TCE is known to occur at the very early stages of visual word recognition wit... Read More about Neural correlates of confusability in recognition of morphologically complex Korean words.
Enhancing vs. inhibiting semantic performance with transcranial magnetic stimulation over the anterior temporal lobe: frequency- and task-specific effects (2021)
Journal Article
Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2021). Enhancing vs. inhibiting semantic performance with transcranial magnetic stimulation over the anterior temporal lobe: frequency- and task-specific effects. NeuroImage, 234, Article 117959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117959Accumulating, converging evidence indicates that the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) appears to be the transmodal hub for semantic representation. A series of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) investigations utilizing the ‘virtual lesi... Read More about Enhancing vs. inhibiting semantic performance with transcranial magnetic stimulation over the anterior temporal lobe: frequency- and task-specific effects.
The Left Angular Gyrus Is Causally Involved in Context-dependent Integration and Associative Encoding during Narrative Reading (2021)
Journal Article
Branzi, F. M., Pobric, G., Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2021). The Left Angular Gyrus Is Causally Involved in Context-dependent Integration and Associative Encoding during Narrative Reading. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 33(6), 1082-1095. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01698The role of the left angular gyrus (AG) in language processing remains unclear. In this study, we used TMS to test the hypothesis that the left AG causally supports the processes necessary for context-dependent integration and encoding of information... Read More about The Left Angular Gyrus Is Causally Involved in Context-dependent Integration and Associative Encoding during Narrative Reading.
Operculo-Insular and Anterior Cingulate Plasticity Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Human Motor Cortex: A Dynamic Casual Modelling Study (2021)
Journal Article
Hodkinson, D. J., Bungert, A., Bowtell, R. W., Jackson, S. R., & Jung, J. (2021). Operculo-Insular and Anterior Cingulate Plasticity Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Human Motor Cortex: A Dynamic Casual Modelling Study. Journal of Neurophysiology, 125(4), 1180-1190. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00670.2020The ability to induce neuroplasticity with non-invasive brain stimulation techniques offers a unique opportunity to examine the human brain systems involved in pain modulation. In experimental and clinical settings, the primary motor cortex (M1) is c... Read More about Operculo-Insular and Anterior Cingulate Plasticity Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Human Motor Cortex: A Dynamic Casual Modelling Study.
Immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS (2020)
Preprint / Working Paper
Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. Immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBSRecent evidence demonstrates that activation-dependent neuroplasticity on a structural level can occur in a short time (2 hour or less) in humans. However, the exact time scale of structural plasticity in adult human brain remains unclear. Using voxe... Read More about Immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS.
Altered hippocampal functional connectivity patterns in patients with cognitive impairments following ischaemic stroke: a resting-state fMRI study (2020)
Preprint / Working Paper
Jung, J., Laverick, R., Nader, K., Wilson, M., Auer, D. P., Rotshtein, P., & Hosseini, A. A. Altered hippocampal functional connectivity patterns in patients with cognitive impairments following ischaemic stroke: a resting-state fMRI studyBackground Ischemic stroke with cognitive impairment is a considerable risk factor for developing dementia. Identifying imaging markers of cognitive impairment following ischemic stroke will help to develop prevention strategies against post-stroke d... Read More about Altered hippocampal functional connectivity patterns in patients with cognitive impairments following ischaemic stroke: a resting-state fMRI study.
Modulating Brain Networks With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Over the Primary Motor Cortex: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study (2020)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Bungert, A., Bowtell, R., & Jackson, S. (2020). Modulating Brain Networks With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Over the Primary Motor Cortex: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, Article 31. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00031Stimulating the primary motor cortex (M1) using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) causes unique multisensory experience such as the targeted muscle activity, afferent/reafferent sensory feedback, tactile sensation over the scalp and “click” sou... Read More about Modulating Brain Networks With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Over the Primary Motor Cortex: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study.
Number of subjects required in common study designs for functional GABA magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the human brain at 3 Tesla (2019)
Journal Article
Sanaei Nezhad, F., Lea‐Carnall, C. A., Anton, A., Jung, J., Michou, E., Williams, S. R., & Parkes, L. M. (2020). Number of subjects required in common study designs for functional GABA magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the human brain at 3 Tesla. European Journal of Neuroscience, 51(8), 1784-1793. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14618Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a research tool for measuring the concentration of metabolites such as γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in the brain. MEGA‐PRESS has been the preferred pulse sequence for GABA measurements due to low p... Read More about Number of subjects required in common study designs for functional GABA magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the human brain at 3 Tesla.
Alterations in functional brain networks in depressed patients with a suicide attempt history (2019)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Choi, S., Han, K.-M., Kim, A., Kang, W., Paik, J.-W., …Ham, B.-J. (2020). Alterations in functional brain networks in depressed patients with a suicide attempt history. Neuropsychopharmacology, 45, 964–974. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0560-zSuicide is a major challenge in public health and is strongly associated with major depressive disorder (MDD). Despite recent neuroimaging developments, the neural correlates of suicide behavior in patients with MDD remain unclear. Independent compon... Read More about Alterations in functional brain networks in depressed patients with a suicide attempt history.
The neural bases of resilient cognitive systems: Evidence of variable neuro-displacement in the semantic system (2019)
Other
Jung, J., Rice, G. E., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. The neural bases of resilient cognitive systems: Evidence of variable neuro-displacement in the semantic systemThe purpose of this study was to initiate exploration of an equally-important research goal: what are the neurocomputational mechanisms that make these cognitive systems “well engineered” and thus resilient across a range of performance demands and t... Read More about The neural bases of resilient cognitive systems: Evidence of variable neuro-displacement in the semantic system.
Establishing the cognitive signature of human brain networks derived from structural and functional connectivity (2018)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Visser, M., Binney, R. J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2018). Establishing the cognitive signature of human brain networks derived from structural and functional connectivity. Brain Structure and Function, 223(9), 4023-4038. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-018-1734-x© 2018, The Author(s). Numerous neuroimaging studies have identified various brain networks using task-free analyses. While these networks undoubtedly support higher cognition, their precise functional characteristics are rarely probed directly. The... Read More about Establishing the cognitive signature of human brain networks derived from structural and functional connectivity.
Mapping the Neural Dynamics of Korean–English Bilinguals With Medium Proficiency During Auditory Word Processing (2018)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Nam, K., Cho, H., & Kim, S. (2018). Mapping the Neural Dynamics of Korean–English Bilinguals With Medium Proficiency During Auditory Word Processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 983. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00983Bilingualism is a worldwide phenomenon and provides an opportunity to understand how the brain represents language processing. Although many studies have investigated the neural mechanism of bilingualism, it still remain unclear how brain systems are... Read More about Mapping the Neural Dynamics of Korean–English Bilinguals With Medium Proficiency During Auditory Word Processing.
Controlled semantic cognition relies upon dynamic and flexible interactions between the executive ‘semantic control’ and hub-and-spoke ‘semantic representation’ systems (2018)
Journal Article
Chiou, R., Humphreys, G. F., Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2018). Controlled semantic cognition relies upon dynamic and flexible interactions between the executive ‘semantic control’ and hub-and-spoke ‘semantic representation’ systems. Cortex, 103, 100-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.02.018© 2018 The Author(s) Built upon a wealth of neuroimaging, neurostimulation, and neuropsychology data, a recent proposal set forth a framework termed controlled semantic cognition (CSC) to account for how the brain underpins the ability to flexibly us... Read More about Controlled semantic cognition relies upon dynamic and flexible interactions between the executive ‘semantic control’ and hub-and-spoke ‘semantic representation’ systems.
GABA concentrations in the anterior temporal lobe predict human semantic processing (2017)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Williams, S. R., Sanaei Nezhad, F., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2017). GABA concentrations in the anterior temporal lobe predict human semantic processing. Scientific Reports, 7(1), Article 15748. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15981-7There is now considerable convergent evidence from multiple methodologies and clinical studies that the human anterior temporal lobe (ATL) is a semantic representational hub. However, the neurochemical nature of the ATL in the semantic processing rem... Read More about GABA concentrations in the anterior temporal lobe predict human semantic processing.
Quantification of GABA, glutamate and glutamine in a single measurement at 3 T using GABA-edited MEGA-PRESS (2017)
Journal Article
Nezhad, F. S., Anton, A., Michou, E., Jung, J., Parkes, L. M., & Williams, S. R. (2018). Quantification of GABA, glutamate and glutamine in a single measurement at 3 T using GABA-edited MEGA-PRESS. NMR in Biomedicine, 31(1), Article e3847. https://doi.org/10.1002/nbm.3847γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate (Glu), major neurotransmitters in the brain, are recycled through glutamine (Gln). All three metabolites can be measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in vivo, although GABA measurement at 3T requires an... Read More about Quantification of GABA, glutamate and glutamine in a single measurement at 3 T using GABA-edited MEGA-PRESS.
Structural and functional correlates for language efficiency in auditory word processing (2017)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Kim, S., Cho, H., & Nam, K. (2017). Structural and functional correlates for language efficiency in auditory word processing. PLoS ONE, 12(9), Article e0184232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184232© 2017 Jung et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credi... Read More about Structural and functional correlates for language efficiency in auditory word processing.
The structural connectivity of higher order association cortices reflects human functional brain networks (2016)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Cloutman, L. L., Binney, R. J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2017). The structural connectivity of higher order association cortices reflects human functional brain networks. Cortex, 97, 221-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.08.011
Mapping the Dynamic Network Interactions Underpinning Cognition: A cTBS-fMRI Study of the Flexible Adaptive Neural System for Semantics (2016)
Journal Article
Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2016). Mapping the Dynamic Network Interactions Underpinning Cognition: A cTBS-fMRI Study of the Flexible Adaptive Neural System for Semantics. Cerebral Cortex, 26(8), 3580-3590. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw149Higher cognitive function reflects the interaction of a network of multiple brain regions. Previous investigations have plotted out these networks using functional or structural connectivity approaches. While these map the topography of the regions i... Read More about Mapping the Dynamic Network Interactions Underpinning Cognition: A cTBS-fMRI Study of the Flexible Adaptive Neural System for Semantics.
Vertex Stimulation as a Control Site for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study (2015)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Bungert, A., Bowtell, R., & Jackson, S. R. (2016). Vertex Stimulation as a Control Site for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study. Brain Stimulation, 9(1), 58-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.09.008Background
A common control condition for transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies is to apply stimulation at the vertex. An assumption of vertex stimulation is that it has relatively little influence over on-going brain processes involved in... Read More about Vertex Stimulation as a Control Site for Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Concurrent TMS/fMRI Study.
Enhanced saccadic control in young people with Tourette syndrome despite slowed pro-saccades (2015)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Jackson, S. R., Nam, K., Hollis, C., & Jackson, G. M. (2015). Enhanced saccadic control in young people with Tourette syndrome despite slowed pro-saccades. Journal of Neuropsychology, 9(2), https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12044Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by motor and vocal tics. Tics are repetitive and uncontrolled behaviours that have been associated with basal ganglia dysfunction. We investigated saccadic eye movements in a group... Read More about Enhanced saccadic control in young people with Tourette syndrome despite slowed pro-saccades.
Impact of lingual gyrus volume on antidepressant response and neurocognitive functions in Major Depressive Disorder: A voxel-based morphometry study (2014)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Kang, J., Won, E., Nam, K., Lee, M.-S., Tae, W. S., & Ham, B.-J. (2014). Impact of lingual gyrus volume on antidepressant response and neurocognitive functions in Major Depressive Disorder: A voxel-based morphometry study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 169, 179-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.018Background
Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) has demonstrated structural brain changes between patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and healthy individuals. The initial response to antidepressants is crucial to predict prognosis in the treatm... Read More about Impact of lingual gyrus volume on antidepressant response and neurocognitive functions in Major Depressive Disorder: A voxel-based morphometry study.
Cortical thickness, cortical and subcortical volume, and white matter integrity in patients with their first episode of major depression (2013)
Journal Article
Han, K.-M., Choi, S., Jung, J., Na, K.-S., Yoon, H.-K., Lee, M.-S., & Ham, B.-J. (2014). Cortical thickness, cortical and subcortical volume, and white matter integrity in patients with their first episode of major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 155, 42-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.10.021Background
The uncertainty over the true morphological changes in brains with major depressive disorder (MDD) underlines the necessity of comprehensive studies with multimodal structural brain imaging analyses. This study aimed to evaluate the dif... Read More about Cortical thickness, cortical and subcortical volume, and white matter integrity in patients with their first episode of major depression.
Cognitive control over motor output in Tourette syndrome (2012)
Journal Article
Jung, J., Jackson, S. R., Parkinson, A., & Jackson, G. M. (2013). Cognitive control over motor output in Tourette syndrome. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(6), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.08.009Tourette syndrome [TS] is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by chronic vocal and motor tics. TS has been associated with dysfunctional cognitive (inhibitory) control of behaviour, however the evidence for this, beyond the occurrence of tics... Read More about Cognitive control over motor output in Tourette syndrome.