Investigating the Effect of Lubricating Oil Volatility and Ash Content on the Emission of Sub-23 nm Particles

Lagana, Salvatore; Pfau, Sebastian A.; Haffner-Staton, Ephraim; La Rocca, Antonino; Cairns, Alasdair

Abstract

As the world transitions to decarbonized fuels, understanding the impact of engine oil on emissions remains crucial. Lubricant-derived particulate emissions can influence air quality and regulatory compliance in future transport. Researchers have predominantly focused on transient driving cycles to replicate real-world conditions and capture the full range of particle size. This emphasis has led to a lack of comprehensive data on oil-related particulate emissions during steady-state operations, particularly for particles smaller than 23 nm. This paper addresses this gap as upcoming regulations, such as Euro 7, are expected to impose stricter limits by extending measurement thresholds down to 10 nm. The investigation was conducted on a 1.0 L gasoline direct injection engine, assessing total particulate number (TPN) emissions using three oil formulations: a baseline oil with mid-ash content and mid-volatility, a low-ash and low-volatility oil (LoLo), and a high-ash and high-volatility oil (HiHi). A DMS500, with and without a catalytic stripper, measured particle size distribution and TPN. Two digital filters were applied to obtain particle number (PN) metrics comparable to condensation particle counters: “F1-PN > 23” with d50 = 23 nm and “F3-PN > 10” with d50 = 10 nm. Sub-23 nm particles dominated emissions, with baseline oil generally producing higher PN emissions except at low loads. Using F1-PN > 23, HiHi exhibited higher PN counts across moderate to high speeds, while F3-PN > 10 revealed lower PN emissions for HiHi at specific conditions, excluding 2250 rpm-fast idle. By a weighted arithmetic mean, HiHi’s emissions were 9.7% higher than LoLo with F1-PN > 23 and 3.6% higher with F3-PN > 10. Oil formulation did not influence nucleation mode diameter. A three-way ANOVA demonstrated that load and speed were the predominant factors affecting emissions over the entire testing map; albeit at specific operating conditions the effect of the oil is evident. This suggests that under steady-state conditions, carbon-based fuel still plays a key role in particle formation. Future work will investigate decarbonised fuels to further isolate the effect of oil on emissions.

Citation

Lagana, S., Pfau, S. A., Haffner-Staton, E., La Rocca, A., & Cairns, A. (2025). Investigating the Effect of Lubricating Oil Volatility and Ash Content on the Emission of Sub-23 nm Particles. Applied Sciences, 15(4), Article 2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15042212

• Journal Article Type: Article
• Acceptance Date: Feb 17, 2025
• Online Publication Date: Feb 19, 2025
• Publication Date: Feb 19, 2025
• Deposit Date: Feb 19, 2025
• Publicly Available Date: Feb 20, 2025
• Journal: Applied Sciences
• Electronic ISSN: 2076-3417
• Publisher: MDPI
• Peer Reviewed: Peer Reviewed
• Volume: 15
• Issue: 4
• Article Number: 2212
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app15042212
• Keywords: gasoline direct injection (GDI); oil formulation; sub-23 nm; particle number (PN); catalytic stripper; DMS500; soot; particulate emission
• Public URL: https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/45595475
• Publisher URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/4/2212
• Additional Information: This work was supported by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council through the scholarship provided by EPSRC for Salvatore Lagana [grant number EP/T517902/1].